AI knows how caste works in India. Here’s why that’s a worry
When Usha Bansal and Pinki Ahirwar — two names that exist only in a research prompt — were presented to GPT-4 alongside a list of professions, the AI didn’t hesitate. “Scientist, dentist, and financial analyst” went to Bansal. “Manual scavenger, plumber, and construction worker” were assigned to Ahirwar. The model had no information about these “individuals” beyond the names. But it didn’t need any. In India, surnames carry invisible annotations: markers of caste, community, and social hierarchy. Bansal signals Brahmin heritage. Ahirwar signals Dalit identity. And GPT-4, like the society whose data trained it, had learned what the difference implies. This was not an isolated error. Across thousands of prompts, multiple AI language models, and several research studies, the pattern held. The systems had internalised social order, learning which names cluster near prestige and which get swept towards stigma. Sociologists TOI spoke with were unsurprised. Anup Lal, associate professor (sociology and industrial relations), St Joseph’s University, Bengaluru, said: “Caste in India has a way of sticking on. Even when Indians convert to religions with no caste in their foundation, the caste identities continue. I am not surprised that AI models are biased.” Another sociologist added: “If anything, isn’t AI being accurate? It is, after all, learning from us.” Far-reaching implications The need for bias-free AI becomes critical as AI systems move into hiring, credit scoring, education, governance, and healthcare. The research shows bias is not only about harmful text generation, but about how systems internalise and organise social knowledge. A hiring tool may not explicitly reject lower-caste applicants. But if its embeddings associate certain surnames with lower competence or status, that association could subtly influence ranking, recommendations, or risk assessments. Beyond surface-level bias The bias was not merely in what models said. Often, surface-level safeguards prevented overtly discriminatory outputs. The deeper issue lay in how they organised human identity within the mathematical structures that generate responses. Multiple research teams have documented that large language models (LLMs) encode caste and religious hierarchies at a structural level, positioning some social groups closer to terms associated with education, affluence, and prestige, while aligning others with attributes that attach to poverty or stigma. “Although algorithmic fairness and bias mitigation have gained prominence, caste-based bias in LLMs remains significantly underexamined,” argue researchers from IBM Research, Dartmouth College, and other institutions in their paper, ‘DECASTE: Unveiling Caste Stereotypes in Large Language Models through Multi-Dimensional Bias Analysis’. “If left unchecked, caste-related biases could perpetuate or escalate discrimination in subtle and overt forms.” Most bias studies evaluate outputs. These researchers examined what happens under the bonnet, as it were. LLMs convert words into numerical vectors within a high-dimensional “embedding space”. The distance between vectors reflects how closely concepts are associated. If certain identities consistently lie closer to low-status attributes, structural bias exists, even if explicitly harmful text is filtered. The DECASTE study used two approaches: In a Stereotypical Word Association Task (SWAT), researchers asked GPT-4 and other models to assign occupation-related words to individuals identified only by Indian surnames. The results were stark. Beyond occupations, the bias extended to appearance and education. Positive descriptors such as “light-skinned,” “sophisticated,” and “fashionable” aligned with dominant caste names. Negative ones like “darkskinned,” “shabby,” and “sweaty” clustered with marginalised castes. “IIT, IIM, and med school” were linked to Brahmin names; “govt school, anganwadi, and remedial classes” to Dalit names. In a Persona-based Scenario Answering Task (PSAT), models were asked to generate personas and assign tasks. In one example, two architects, one Dalit, one Brahmin, were described identically except for caste background. GPT-4o assigned “designing innovative, eco-friendly buildings” to the Brahmin persona and “cleaning and organising design blueprints” to the Dalit persona. Across nine LLMs tested, including GPT-4o, GPT-3.5, LLaMA variants, and Mixtral, bias scores ranged from 0.62 to 0.74 when comparing dominant castes with Dalits and Shudras, indicating consistent stereotype reinforcement. Winner-takes-all effect A parallel study, that included researchers from the University of Michigan and Microsoft Research India, examined bias through repeated story generation compared against Census data. Titled, ‘How Deep Is Representational Bias in LLMs? The Cases of Caste and Religion’, the study analysed 7,200 GPT-4 Turbo-generated stories about birth, wedding, and death rituals across four Indian states. The findings revealed what researchers describe as a “winner-takes-all” dynamic. In UP, where general castes comprise 20% of the population, GPT4 featured them in 76% of birth ritual stories. OBCs, despite being 50% of the population, appeared in only 19%. In Tamil Nadu, general castes were overrepresented nearly 11-fold in wedding stories. The model amplified marginal statistical dominance in its training data into overwhelming output dominance. Religious bias was even more pronounced. Across all four states, Hindu representation in baseline prompts ranged from 98% to 100%. In UP, where Muslims comprise 19% of the population, their representation in generated stories was under 1%. Even explicit diversity prompts failed to change this pattern in some cases. In Odisha, which has India’s largest tribal population, the model often defaulted to generic terms like ‘Tribal’ rather than naming specific communities, demonstrating what researchers called “cultural flattening”. Embedded in structure Both research teams tested whether prompt engineering could reduce bias. The results were inconsistent. Asking for “another” or “different” story sometimes reduced skew, but rarely corrected it proportionally. In Tamil Nadu birth stories, even explicit diversity prompts still overrepresented general castes by 22 percentage points. For religious representation in UP weddings, all prompt types produced 100% Hindu stories. The DECASTE study found similar limits. Some models avoided generating personas when caste names were explicit, but this avoidance did not reduce implicit bias — it simply sidestepped engagement. The core problem lies deeper. Bias exists at the representational level — in how models internally structure knowledge. Researchers found that uppercaste identifiers showed stronger similarity to high-status and education-linked attributes. Historically marginalised caste identifiers showed stronger similarity to economic hardship or lower-status occupations. These separations persisted even when context was tightly controlled. Safety fine-tuning reduced overtly harmful outputs but did not eliminate underlying structural disparities. “Filtering affects what
Kerala: Why did a Dalit priest have to resign after just four months on the job?
P.R. Vishnu, a Dalit priest with the Travancore Devaswom Board, has resigned. He alleged caste discrimination and ongoing threats. This harassment began after a police complaint was filed two years ago. Kochi: P.R. Vishnu, a Dalit priest from Alangad Koduvazhanga Pallathuparambil, who worked with the Travancore Devaswom Board, has resigned. Vishnu was the priest at the Vathurkkavu Devi Temple, which falls under the Tiruvallur sub-group of the Paravur Group. Vishnu explained that two years ago, while working as a substitute priest at the Thathappilli Bhagavathy Temple, he filed a police complaint alleging caste discrimination. Following this, he faced threats and taunts. Vishnu also stated that he was receiving pressure and threats from various quarters to withdraw the complaint he filed at the time. He also clarified that the money paid for union membership was returned. It is reported that complainant Vishnu faced renewed threats after the gold jewelry at the Vathurkkavu temple where he was currently working was found to be fake. He had received the job four months earlier through the Travancore Devaswom Recruitment Board. Vishnu clarified that this was the reason he decided to leave. Author: Satyam Bhardwaj Courtesy: Hindi News
How, in a first, Bhopal’s transgender community is split on communal lines
A group of eunuchs has petitioned the Bhopal administration that they are being forced to convert to Islam. Their other claim: infiltration of ‘Bangladeshis’ into the community Communal divide seems to have hit the eunuch/transgender community too. In Bhopal, one group has accused the other of forcible conversion and exploitation. The accusations include infiltration by ‘Bangladeshi’ eunuchs, in much the same way as claims about illegal border influx from Bangladesh in eastern and northeastern India. A group of eunuchs has petitioned the Bhopal district administration that they are being forced to convert to Islam. Last week, the group held a meeting at a slum settlement to apparently formulate a strategy against what they termed as ‘kinnar (transgender) jihad’. Rishi Ajay Das, founder of the Kinnar Akhada, an outfit that claims to work for the empowerment of transgenders, said a guru of the eunuchs in Mangalwara, located in the older part of Bhopal where most transgenders in Bhopal reside, had been attempting to convert Hindu members of the community to Islam. He alleged that alms collected by Hindu eunuchs was being used for building religious and educational structures of another community. So far, Bhopal never witnessed communal tension in the transgender community. While the city’s transgenders are aligned to various groups, internal rivalries and fights have been over territory control or joining of new members, but never on religious lines. Das mentioned a third angle for the conflict: Bangladeshi eunuchs entering Bhopal—a claim he did not substantiate but said had caused divisions in the community. At last count, way back in 2011, the eunuch/transgender community in Bhopal numbered around 300. However, voluntary organisations suggest they could be 10 times that estimate. Das has sought the district administration’s intervention by claiming to be a minority within a minority grouping. Rahul Noronha Courtesy : India Today Note: This news is originally published on https:/indiatoday.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
UP wedding shocker, groom revealed as transgender hours after vows
A wedding in Uttar Pradesh was called off when the bride’s family discovered the groom was transgender after the vows were taken, which required police intervention to settle the situation. A wedding ceremony in Uttar Pradesh took a bizarre turn after the bride’s family was informed that the groom was transgender, creating tension between the two sides and requiring police intervention. According to local reports, the wedding procession in Barabanki district had reached a village under the Kothi Thana jurisdiction on Friday, with rituals and customary ceremonies continuing through the night. The situation then changed on Saturday morning when members of the bride’s side learnt from a source about the groom’s gender identity, leading to a sudden escalation in the atmosphere at the venue. As word spread, several guests and individuals from the groom’s side are said to have left the location. Members of the bride’s family then stopped the groom and his mother, seeking clarification, while villagers gathered at the scene, resulting in hours of confusion and heated exchanges. Police personnel from the local station reached the village after being alerted and worked to calm both parties. Following discussions, the matter was eventually settled through mutual understanding, and the ceremony did not proceed further. Officials stated that no formal complaint had been filed by either side, and therefore no legal action had been initiated. Reports also indicated that during a gift-exchange ritual, a group of traditional performers recognised the groom, after which the wedding was called off. The incident has since become a topic of discussion in the surrounding area, with conversations continuing among residents about the unusual turn of events. Courtesy : India Today Note: This news is originally published on https:/indiatoday.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
Tamil Nadu: Congress vs Congress erupts as Stalin refuses to blink
NEW DELHI: The simmering debate over power sharing in Tamil Nadu has triggered not just friction between the Congress and its ally, the DMK, but also exposed sharp internal rift within the Congress itself, with the state leadership moving swiftly to rein in dissenting voices as CM MK Stalin drew a firm red line on power sharing. Tamil Nadu Congress Committee (TNCC) president K Selvaperunthagai on Monday publicly rebuked party MP Manickam Tagore for raising the issue of power sharing with the ruling DMK at a district-level meeting in Madurai. Selvaperunthagai asked pointedly whether anyone in the party considered themselves “bigger than the AICC leadership”. The warning came amid renewed strain in the Congress–DMK relationship after Tamil Nadu CM MK Stalin dismissed demands for a share in governance as a “conspiracy”, even while insisting that the alliance remained intact. Selvaperunthagai said the AICC had already issued clear instructions that alliance matters should not be discussed publicly, news agency PTI reported. “Our leaders Rahul Gandhi, Mallikarjun Kharge and KC Venugopal have clearly asked us not to express views on alliances in public. I strictly follow those instructions,” he said, adding that airing such views ahead of the assembly elections only created confusion. He was responding to the February 15 meeting of the Madurai South District Congress Committee, held at Tirupparankundram under Tagore’s leadership, which reportedly passed resolutions seeking power sharing with the DMK. While Selvaperunthagai said he was unaware of the resolutions, he underlined that the party had already constituted a five-member committee under Girish Chodankar to hold talks with the DMK on seat sharing, and that any discussions must remain within that framework. Meanwhile, Congress MP Karti Chidambaram also also clarified in an interview to ANI that the party remains committed to the INDIA bloc and its alliance in Tamil Nadu, led by the DMK. “We are in an INDIA alliance. We have to look at it from a national perspective. The DMK is a very important part of the INDIA alliance nationally because they contribute a significant number of MPs to our bloc. And we are part of the INDIA alliance in Tamil Nadu, which the DMK leads. The Chief Minister has categorically confirmed the alliance, and there’s no doubt about that,” he said. Chidambaram acknowledged that while long-standing alliances may have inherent tensions and expectations, it would not be pragmatic to exit a stable formation. “The DMK is a well-oiled political machine. To somehow get minor issues and ditch that, in my opinion, will not be pragmatic. There are voices within the Congress party which are giving other options. As an active political party, we will notice what’s happening around us,” he said. The internal rebuke follows Tagore’s sharp public pushback against Stalin’s remarks. After the CM termed the power-sharing demand a “problem created by some people” and alleged a conspiracy to create a rift in the alliance, Tagore responded with a pointed one-line post on X: “How is it that seeking, in a spirit of friendship, a role (a share) in work to serve the people could be termed as conspiracy?” The post signalled that at least a section of the Congress was unwilling to back down, despite the DMK leadership’s categorical stance. Stalin, however, left little room for ambiguity. While reiterating that the Congress–DMK alliance was “in harmony” and free of confusion, he firmly ruled out sharing power with allies. “It will not work in Tamil Nadu; they know it too. Rahul Gandhi is not worried either,” he said, asserting DMK dominance while avoiding a direct confrontation with the Congress high command. The DMK has since doubled down on that position. Senior party leader and state forests minister RS Rajakannappan said bluntly that the DMK did not run on the strength of alliances. Invoking history, he asked whether former CM Kalaignar Karunanidhi had ever shared power despite winning over 100 seats, adding that a future DMK government under Stalin would follow only the “Dravida model”. Within the Congress, the messaging remains mixed. While Tagore and a few others have argued that the question of whether Tamil Nadu should have a single-party or coalition government should be left to the people, the state leadership has opted for caution. Selvaperunthagai has maintained that there was “no opportunity” for a crack in the alliance and that all views would eventually be discussed by the AICC leadership and the chief minister. Courtesy : TOI Note: This news is originally published on https:/timesofindia.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
‘I am not a Rahulian’: Congress rift blows up as Mani Shankar Aiyar goes on name-calling spree
NEW DELHI: Mani Shankar Aiyar on Monday invoked BR Ambedkar after Congress distanced itself from the former Union minister’s praise of the Pinarayi Vijayan-led government in Kerala ahead of the assembly polls. Speaking to news agency ANI, Aiyar took a sharp jibe at Rahul Gandhi, saying he is a Gandhian but not a “Rahulian.” Citing Ambedkar’s biography “A Part Apart”, Aiyar said, “There is a biography of Dr Ambedkar which says ‘a part but apart.’ So that’s the only thing I can say. Mr Rahul Gandhi has forgotten that I am a member of the party, and therefore I am a Gandhian, I am a Nehruvian, I am a Rajivian, but I am not a Rahulian.” “I am in the Congress party, I haven’t left it. If Pawan Khera is going to expel me, I will happily go outside and kick his backside after I have left,” he added. Aiyar also said that he has “no respect complete contempt for” Pawan Khera. “Do you think the people of Kerala don’t know what is happening in Congress leadership? At least in Pinarayi’s government there is discipline. They have no Mani Shankar Aiyars. I am Mani Shankar Aiyar because Nehru was a rebel against Gandhi, Subhash Bose was a rebel against Gandhi. Yet Gandhi made Jawaharlal Nehru the PM of India. If Subhas Bose had survived the aircrash on 17th August 1945, I am certain he would have been the President of India. So, that is how they dealt with dissidence. How does the present Congress deal with it? They put somebody like Pawan Khera as the official spokesman. I have absolutely no respect and complete contempt for Pawan Khera,” Mani Shankar Aiyar said. He also described Pawan Khera as a “puppet” who just repeats what party MP Jairam Ramesh tells him. He stated that Khera is not a spokesperson but a “parrot.” “I want you to send a message to Pawan Khera. He has allied with MA Baby in Delhi and he is getting upset about my being allied with Pinarayi Vijayan here. What kind of Congressi is he? Above all, how stupid can a party be than to make Pawan Khera the spokesman? There are a million people in Congress who would make a better spokesman. This chap is just a puppet, he is saying whatever Jairam Ramesh tells him. He repeats the same thing, he is not a spokesman, he is a parrot,” Aiyar said. Aiyar also slammed Congress general secretary KC Venugopal and said, “Can you imagine what is the condition of a party which raises a rowdy like KC Venugopal to the level of Sardar Patel, to Rahul Gandhi? That is all I need to say as an answer.” Earlier on Sunday, Aiyar stoked fresh controversy after lauding Vijayan and expressing hope for the return of the Left government in the upcoming assembly elections. Speaking at an international seminar titled “Vision 2031: Development and Democracy,” Aiyar asked Vijayan to “pick up the baton that the Congress has dropped.” “I do not know whether this is a compliment or an insult, but I deeply regret the absence of my party colleagues on this occasion, which is a state occasion and therefore a national occasion. While Kerala is the first state in panchayati raj in practice, it ranks only second in law,” Aiyar said. “So, in the presence of the chief minister, who I am confident will continue in office, I renew my plea — to reinforce Kerala as the best panchayati raj state in the country. Therefore, I must fall at your feet, Chief Minister Vijayan, and request you to pick up the baton that the Congress has dropped. Thank you, and may Kerala prosper,” he added. Aiyar’s remarks did not sit well with the party. Congress national spokesperson Khera sought to distance the party from the comments, saying Aiyar has had no connection whatsoever with the Congress for the past few years. In a post on X, Khera said Aiyar “speaks and writes purely in his personal capacity.” “Mr Mani Shankar Aiyar has had no connection whatsoever with the Congress for the past few years. He speaks and writes purely in his personal capacity,” Khera said. Congress general secretary in-charge of communications Jairam Ramesh also rubbished Aiyar’s remarks, saying the United Democratic Front (UDF) is set to return to power in Kerala. “Let there be no doubt. The people of Kerala will bring the UDF back for more responsible and responsive governance. They also know the Left Democratic Front (LDF) and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are covert partners,” he said. Courtesy : TOI Note: This news is originally published on https:/timesofindia.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
Cong disassociates, but Aiyar says unlike Rahul friends, he is with party
NEW DELHI: After Congress dissociated itself from Mani Shankar Aiyar following his prediction that the rival Left front will win in Kerala elections, the veteran hit back on Monday saying he remains with the party even as ‘friends of Rahul Gandhi’ have left for other parties. The issue flared up on Sunday when Aiyar, attending a function organised by Kerala govt, said Vijayan will return to power. Taking up cudgels on behalf of the Left, Aiyar had said in Thiruvananthapuram, “As a Congressman, I want UDF to win. As a Gandhian, I am obliged to tell the truth, irrespective of what I wish. I am not a voter in Kerala, but I think he (Kerala’s chief minister Pinarayi Vijayan) is going to get another term.” A stung Congress dissociated itself from Aiyar, with spokesman Pawan Khera saying Aiyar has been writing and speaking in personal capacity for past few years, and Khera’s post on X was corroborated by Jairam Ramesh. A day later, Aiyar got back with a bitter attack on Congress. “The Nehru-Gandhi family is built into the DNA of every Congressman. Why should anyone be in Congress when all of Rahul Gandhi’s friends have departed for other shores. It’s only because if you don’t believe in the leadership of the Nehru-Gandhi family, you would not be in Congress,” he said, adding, “I am in Congress, I have not left it. If Pawan Khera is going to expel me, I will happily go outside and kick his backside.” Interestingly, Aiyar also made remarks like “I am Rajivian (Rajiv Gandhi), not Rahulian (Rahul Gandhi)”, and that he does not need Congress, as it does not need him. Besides, he also criticised other Congress members at the national level and in Kerala. Aiyar has been a thorn in the flesh for Congress, with his remarks on politicians and politics having embarrassed Congress many times. His barb at PM Narendra Modi ahead of 2017 Gujarat assembly elections had resulted in Congress suspending him in Dec 2017, but the suspension was revoked in Aug 2018. It is not clear if Congress will again act against Aiyar. Sources said there had not been any discussion on it till late afternoon. Courtesy : TOI Note: This news is originally published on https:/timesofindia.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
Navjot Kaur Sidhu targets Rahul Gandhi; flags issues in Punjab Congress: ‘You don’t deserve that chair’
COIMBATORE: Former Congress leader Navjot Kaur Sidhu has launched a sharp attack on Rahul Gandhi, accusing the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha of being “disconnected from ground realities” and failing to act against alleged corruption within the Punjab Congress unit. Addressing the media in Coimbatore, Sidhu alleged that Gandhi’s inaction is damaging the party’s prospects in Punjab, according to news agency PTI. She claimed that members of his inner circle are engaged in selling election tickets while he remains unaware of developments on the ground. “Rahul Gandhi talks good. He talks sense. But what he does and what he says is very different. For the past eight months, I have been asking for a time to tell him that your people, your president or your person appointed in Punjab is not doing justice to Punjab. He’s killing Congress in Punjab. I’m just asking you for a seating to tell you that your party is being destroyed in Punjab. They have already sold the tickets,” said Sidhu. She further stated, “If you are not aware of what is happening beneath you, then I am sorry. You do not deserve that chair. You are responsible for what you are doing. We left everything for Punjab, and you promised us a deputy CM post with seven departments and me as an MP, but you gave us nothing. You gave us local bodies and tourism, and you wanted them to be run according to the CM. Why are you talking against corruption when your own people are corrupt? And you are liking those corrupt people around you. The people surrounding you are totally corrupt. You have no time for the honest people who want to come and tell you that this is going wrong, you are not going to win Punjab.” “Probably it is been gifted to him. He has not worked his way through the lower steps to actually be on the lower ground. I think it’s very important to be grounded. What’s happening at ground zero is very important for anyone. You have to be in touch with the ground reality to know. You can’t be living in a dream world,” said Sidhu. “We have been honest throughout our lives. We have just gained the confidence of the people of Punjab, of the people of India, by being honest and struggling financially because of that. You can point a finger at PM Modi. Try to touch him. Does he have a penny? Does he have a file against him? Try touching him personally. There is nothing against him,” Sidhu added. Courtesy : TOI Note: This news is originally published on https:/timesofindia.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
Midnight drama in wedding as groom found to be transgender
Lucknow: What began as a night of music, rituals and celebration ended in shock, and a ‘baraat’ returning empty-handed in a village in Barabanki. Just hours after completing the ‘seven vows’ of marital bond, a 22-year-old groom was ‘exposed’ as being allegedly associated with the transgender (kinnar) community, moments before the bride’s ceremonial ‘bidai’ on Friday night. The marriage was fixed six months ago between a local girl and Rishu, a resident of Pure Ganai village. On Feb 13, the ‘baraat’ arrived in full festive spirit, with a band, dancing relatives, and a grand welcome from the bride’s family. Rituals were completed and guests retired after dinner. Around 4am, when preparations for the bride’s departure were under way, a group of ‘kinnars’ from Kadopur reached the venue to collect customary ‘neg’ (gift). The atmosphere shifted dramatically when they recognised the groom. Eyewitnesses claimed the groom’s family quickly handed over Rs 23,000, urging them to remain silent. When the bride’s relatives asked the groom to step inside for verification, he refused and created a commotion. The visiting ‘kinnars’ revealed that the groom was earlier a part of their troupe. Furious relatives of the bride detained the groom as police were alerted. However, no FIR was lodged, reportedly due to social sensitivities. After negotiations, the groom’s side allegedly agreed to reimburse wedding expenses. The ‘baraat’ returned without the bride. Courtesy : TOI Note: This news is originally published on https:/timesofindia.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights
3 transgender people booked for extortion in Nashik
Nashik: The Bhadrakali police registered a case against three transgender people on charges of extortion after a complaint alleged that a 28-year-old transgender woman was assaulted in the Bhadrakali area on Feb 10 to force her to pay Rs 20,000. Based on the complaint, the police registered a case against the three for offences punishable under relevant sections of the BNS for extortion, intentional insult and criminal intimidation. The complainant stated in her complaint that she sought alms from people for her livelihood. She alleged that on Feb 10, when she was near Kathada in the Bhadrakali area around 10am, three other transgender persons met her and told her that she should pay them Rs 20,000 as a cut from her monthly earnings. The complainant said that when she refused to pay up, she was kicked and punched by the three. She also alleged that the suspects threatened to kill her if she did not convert to a particular faith. The Bhadrakali police said the case is being investigated, though no one has been arrested so far. Courtesy : TOI Note: This news is originally published on https:/timesofindia.com/bha and is used purely for non-profit/non-commercial purposes, especially human rights